From the archive: Dinosaur Time
* _Steve Brusatte has_ _a new book out about the evolution of birds_ _. I’m excited to read it— I haven’t had the chance yet, although I’ve admired in on a bookshelf. Anyway, it got me thinking about this old essay I wrote complaining about the use of political metaphors in his earlier book on dinosaurs. Needless to say, this is something that continues to bug the everliving sh-t out of me, and not just in dinosaur writing. Please please PLEASE let’s all try to do better. Especially Netflix— the production company behind the laziest prehistoric nature documentaries ever not-filmed. “_ _Problematica_ _” is written by_ _Max Dresow_ _…_
In 1966, Hammer Films released the adventure-fantasy picture _One Million Years B.C._ You may remember it as the one that put Raquel Welch in a fur bikini, but at the time it was also notable for its depiction of dinosaurs. With stop-motion pioneer Ray Harryhausen in charge, the film delivered several iconic sequences, including a nearly four-minute brawl between a _Ceratosaurus_ and a _Triceratops_. (In a twist, the _Triceratops_ won.) Audiences responded, and despite the meddling of American censors, the film turned a profit. Three more films followed in the “Cave Girl” series, with diminishing artistic and financial returns. The second had a title that feels inevitable given the cavemen versus dinosaurs setup. It was called _When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth_ (1970).
A scene from _When Dinosaurs Ruled the Earth_(1970) starring Victoria Vetri
Dinosaurs have been ruling the earth for a while now. Not actual dinosaurs, mind you (though there are plenty of non-avian dinosaurs around, including some _thirty billion chickens_). I mean ruling it in the popular imagination. Ask yourself this. How many popular discussions of dinosaurs fail to mention that dinosaurs once “ruled the earth”? The expression is so ubiquitous that it scarcely registers anymore, or registers only by its absence. Recently, I was pleased to discover that a favorite childhood book does _not_ contain a variant of this expression. This is _Dinosaur Time_ by Peggy Parish, with illustrations by Arnold Lobel. But why should this stand out? The book does say that, 100 million years ago, “dinosaurs were everywhere.” How ubiquitous does the language of political domination have to be before it feels subversive to claim that the Mesozoic was merely “dinosaur time”?
The iconic ending of _Jurassic Park_(1993)
Writing in _Aeon_, Riley Black provides a diagnosis of our inability to think about dinosaurs in non-dynastical terms:
> The entire reason we so often fixate on the supposed dominance of the dinosaurs is because we now see ourselves in that position. For more than a century, the decimation of the “ruling reptiles” has been taken as a cautionary tale of what could happen to us— not all that different from pundits who cry that the United States is set to topple like the Roman Empire. The narrative becomes one of power, influence and longevity, one group of organisms above all others deciding the course of entire ecosystems over the span of millions of years.
The story, Black continues, “says more about the way we interpret the past than what actually transpired.” “[By] creating a fairly-tale out of a distant prehistoric event, we’ve inflated our sense of importance in the world.” Her analysis recalls Ellen Goodman’s remark that perhaps “every era gets the dinosaur story it deserves.” The Victorians got a story about mammals outcompeting dinosaurs in a progressive upward sweep. Goodman’s contemporaries got a story about dinosaur extinction as nuclear Armageddon. And recently, dinosaurs have again become the victims of climate change. But whereas extinction narratives are always shifting as our “extinction imaginary” evolves, the language of dinosaur domination has remained remarkably stable (Sepkoski 2021). What’s good enough for Hammer Films is evidently good enough for us. Today, we’re all Raquel Welch in a fur bikini. But, like, really?
I was prompted to reflect on this recently by a book I’ve been reading. The book is Steve Brusatte’s _The Rise and Fall of the Dinosaurs,_ and you probably remember it from how it was f-cking everywhere in 2018. I'm surprised that it took me this long to read it, since I was tempted to buy it every time I walked by an airport book kiosk. But anyway, in 2023, I finally read the thing. And of course I was entertained. Brusatte is a lively and engaging writer with an almost manic storytelling energy. He certainly knows his dinosaurs and his enthusiasm for them bursts off the page. All this makes for a very readable book, and since I am a sucker for a readable book, I polished this one off in just a few sittings. Then I read his mammal book too.
But as much as I was entertained by this book, so much was I annoyed. That’s because Brusatte really embraces the language of political domination. Like, _really._ It is the omnipresent connective tissue of the narrative. My irritation wasn’t a function of moral outrage, nor did it reflect an unrealistically strict prohibition against describing the natural world in human terms. Instead, I just found the constant political metaphors exhausting. And lazy. Surely there are ways of telling the story of dinosaur evolution that do not rely on comparing dinosaurs to political dynasties. Such comparisons add few strokes of color to the writing and contribute nothing to the reader’s understanding of dinosaurs. So why are there so many of them?
Now here is where I disclose that I did something obnoxious. After reading the first couple chapters and noticing the prevalence of political metaphors, I started to record where it appeared. Then I spent an hour or so transcribing sentence fragments into a Word document and pasted them below. I may not have caught all the relevant passages, but I got a bunch of them. So let me present them to you in the most uninspiring form imaginable: the loosely unorganized list.
> ### Preface and Chapter 1
>
> [Dinosaurs] _rose to dominance
> _[The Triassic Period was] an _uncolonized frontier_ _
> __Lording over it all_ were the gorgonopsians
> [Gorgonopsians] _ruled_ at the top of the food chain
> This cast of oddballs _ruled the world_ just before the dinosaurs
>
>
> ### Chapter 2
>
> …thrust onto _an evolutionary battlefield_ … It was far from certain that dinosaurs were going to _emerge triumphant_
> … the crocodile line archosaurs, who _held the throne_ _
> _Nothing was _handed to_ the dinosaurs. They were going to have to _earn it_
> [At the beginning of] their _long march to dominance_
> [The shoreline was] _enemy territory_
> [Dinosaurs were] _destined for greater things_ to come
> For millions of years, it looked as if [dinosaurs] might remain _provincial rubes_ _
> _[Crocs] never _rose to the top_
> …a handful of _battle-worn stragglers_
> …critical to understanding how dinosaurs _ascended to power_ _
> _The dinosaurs had yet to _mount_ _a_ _global revolution
> _ __
>
> ### Chapter 3
>
> Dinosaurs _conquered the deserts_ __ soon after they arrived
> [Dinosaurs were] the ones who would eventually become dominant… and _conquer the world
> _ __
>
> ### Chapter 4
>
> [The mural at the Peabody museum] tells _an epic tale of_ _conquest_ _
> _Dinosaurs had already become _the dominant force on land_ _
> _[D]inosaurs _ruled every corner of the globe_ _
> _[Ankylosaurs remained]_marginal understudies_
> [_Carcharodontosaurus_] _lorded over_ all of the other dinosaurs…
> [Tyrannosaur’s] _undisputed perch_ at the top of the food pyramid
> [A]nother monster that _reigned_ near the top of the food chain [_Torvosaurus_]__
> [How tyrannosaurs] _rose to glory_ _
> _[Deep] into the middle Cretaceous, carcharodontosaurs _ruled the world_ _
> _[The tyrannosaurs] would soon make their move and found _a new dinosaur empire
> _ __
>
> ### Chapter 5
>
> [_T._] _rex_ was _a king indeed_ _
> _[_T. rex_ and its cousins were] at _the top of their game_
> [At] the top of the food chain,___the lords of a lush forest_
> [W]hen _T. rex_ and its brethren _reigned supreme_ _
> …_ _utterly dominated_ the Early Cretaceous
> Enormous tyrannosaurs _reigned_ throughout North America
> In Asia, the nearly _T_. _rex_ -size _Chilantaisaurus_ and the smaller _Shaochilong_ were _the top guns_ … and in South America, carcharodontosaurs like _Aerosteon_ _reigned_
> _Timurlengia_ and its comrades were still living under the thumb of _the real warlords of the middle Cretaceous_ , the carcharodontosaurs
> T. rex and its breatheren really were _kings of the dinosaur world_ _
> _… _champions_ in one region might not be able to _conquer_ another for one simple reason
> The world they _lorded over_ __ was very different from the one…
>
>
> ### Chapter 6
>
> The _king_ of the dinosaurs
> The majesty that is the _king_ _
> _[_T. rex_ ’s] head was _a killing machine, a torture chamber for its prey, and an evil mask_ all in one
> [_T. rex_ ’s] _dominion_
> There it _lorded over_ a range of ecosystems
> [Young Rex was] _an invasive pest_
> … _controlled an entire continent_ _
> _The _King_ went down on top, cut down _at_ _the peak of its power_ _
> _Like so many _monarchs_ , Rex was a glutton
> _…_ the _rulers_ of their time
> _T. rex_ , _the one true king
> _ __
>
> ### Chapter 7
>
> [_T. rex’s_] _dominion
> The King_ may have been able to _easily subjugate_ the dinosaurs of Europe
> [It] gave other types of meat-eaters the opportunity to _seize their own kingdoms_
> And the King… _ruling over all of it
> [R]uling_ for tens of millions of years before _ceding their crown_
> …retaining their _heavyweight title
> _ _Balaur bondoc_ was the _top dog_ of the Late Cretaceous European islands. Less _tyrant_ than _assassin_ _…_
>
>
> ### Chapter 8
>
> The _reign of the dinosaurs_ ended and _a revolution followed_ , forcing them to _cede their kingdom_ to other species
> … the enduring legacy of over 150 million years of _dinosaur domination
> [A] dead empire_
> … able to _rule the planet_ for so long
> [C]ompetitors hoping to _snatch their crown_
> … helped them _rule the world_ for so long
> …theropod _dynasty
> _ __
>
> ### Chapter 9
>
> _Undisputed despots_ of an entire continent
> [_The] peak of their glory days
> _ __
>
> ### Chapter 10
>
> [A] _new dynasty
> _[A] diverse ecosystem… _ruled_ by _T. rex_
> … vanquished their rivals so that they _ruled an entire planet_
> We humans now _wear the crown_ that once belonged to the dinosaurs
> _The dinosaur empire_
You’re probably wondering what I hoped to accomplish with this exercise. And if I’m being honest, I’m not quite sure. As I said before, the annoyance I felt was not so much _moral_ as it was _literary_. So, I suppose I would like it if the writers of trade books on dinosaurs would cut this shit out. But like Black, I don’t think the problem with this language is _entirely_ literary. I think it’s sadly plausible that a good portion of the public thinks that the point of evolution is to produce big carnivores, or at least big animals. How else are you supposed to interpret the constant comparisons of apex predators to kings, conquerors, and heavyweight champions? The least strained interpretation is that the “winners” of evolution are the animals described in these terms. If tyrannosaurs _really_ “controlled an entire continent,” “ruling over it… for ten million years before ceding their crown,” then tyrannosaurs won the evolutionary prize and all the other animals didn’t. It can hardly be otherwise if tyrannosaurus actually “lorded over” or “subjugated” the other animals in their environments. But this is basically nonsense.* It’s at least as plausible to regard large predators as a kind of evolutionary “surface film” with small populations, average evolutionary lifespans, and unenviable qualities of life. (Think of all those scrawny lionesses scrapping for food in nature documentaries.) So, while the Cretaceous can be described as “tyrannosaur time”— there were certainly tyrannosaurs around— it is little more than propaganda to describe tyrannosaurs as the “conquerers” or “despots” of the period.
[* To be clear: I don’t mean to deny that tyrannosaurs played a large role in their ecosystems, and in some sense “dominated” the meso- and macrocarnivore niches. I’m simply pointing out that there’s a big difference between claims like this and the claim that tyrannosaurs were the “undisputed despots of an entire continent.”]
One can hardly avoid citing Stephen Jay Gould at this juncture. So here he is, challenging the claim that we currently live in the “Age of Mammals,” or perhaps the “Age of Man”:
> We live now in the ‘Age of Bacteria.” Our planet has always been in the “Age of Bacteria,” ever since the first fossils— bacteria, of course— were entombed in rocks more than three and a half billion years ago… On any possible, reasonable, or fair criterion, bacteria are— and always have been— the dominant forms of life on earth _._(Gould 1996, 176)
As I understand it, Gould’s argument is a _reductio_. By any reasonable criterion, bacteria should be recognized as the lords of creation. But this is a pretty weird thing to say about bacteria, so perhaps we would do better to leave the language of political domination behind. We should admit that this language floats free of any “reasonable or fair” criteria; that it functions mainly to embellish rhetorical points in the service of non-epistemic aims. So here is our task— to come up with new ways of narrating the history of life, including the history of dinosaur evolution, that avoid drawing unwarranted connections with human political history.
A two-page spread from _Dinosaur Time_ , featuring an admirably unvarnished description of _T. rex_
We should also consider that the habit of describing nature in political terms may have some untoward effects. Certainly we should be wary of naturalizing the language of dominance and hierarchy given the many ways these categories have been abused in the past. Eugenicists used the language of domination and hierarchy to reinforce a view in which power and prestige resided exclusively in the hands of a hereditary aristocracy. Social Darwinists used it to justify a misanthropic attitude toward the bulk of the population, which sometimes found expression in eugenic policy. For all these people, hierarchy and domination were facts of nature, and facts that drove a grotesque political logic. So, while I am _not_ saying that trade books about dinosaurs are covertly eugenical, I _am_ suggesting that there is value in avoiding the rhetorical practices associated with reactionary social movements.
I think I’m finished. Steve Brusatte: from a fellow fan of the other Chicago baseball team, I’m sorry to have used your fun dinosaur book to talk about eugenics. (That’s the humanities for you.) To the rest: I hope I've given you something to think about the next time you screen the Cave Girl movies. And to parents: _Dinosaur Time_ still… rules (?), factual inaccuracies and all. Yes, it shows a sauropod submerged in water because it was “too fat to run from enemies.” (Yikes!) But at least it doesn’t say that dinosaurs used to rule the earth.*
[* If you’re interested in reading more on this topic, check out this old post by Derek Turner…]
# References
Black, R. 2023. The dinosaurs didn’t rule. _Aeon_. https://aeon.co/essays/earths-story-is-not-about-dynasties-but-communities.
Brusatte, S. 2018. _The Rise and Fall of the Dinosaurs: A New History of A Lost World._ New York: Harper Collins.
Gould, S.J. 1996. _Wonderful Life: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin._ New York: Three Rivers Press.
Sepkoski, D. 2021. _Catastrophic Thinking: Extinction and the Value of Diversity from Darwin to the Anthropocene._ Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.