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editions of the dictionary (this is the case for “gypseous”, which was included in AHD1 and AHD2). Similar to our study of the dictionary’s lexicon, we restrict ourselves to 1grams. We find 2077 1-grams newly added to the AHD4. Median frequency (Fig 2D) is computed by obtaining all frequencies of this set of words and computing its median. Next, we ask which 1grams appear in AHD4 but are not part of the year 2000 lexicon any more (frequency lower than one part per billion between 1990 and 2000). We compute the lexical frequency of the 1-gram headwords in AHD, and find a small number (2,220) that are not part of the lexicon today. We show the mean frequency of these 2,220 words (Fig 2F). IlI.5. The Evolution of Grammar III.5A. Ensemble of verbs studied Our list of irregular verbs was derived from the supplemental materials of Ref 18 (main text). The full list of 281 verbs is given in Appendix. Our objective is to study the way word frequency affects the trajectories of the irregular compared with regular past tense. To do so, we must be confident that - the 1grams used refer to the verbs themselves: “to dive/dove” cannot be used, as “dove” is a common noun for a bird. Or, in the verb “to bet/bet”, the irregular preterit cannot be distinguished from the 17 HOUSE_OVERSIGHT_017025
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III.4C. Dictionary Coverage To determine the coverage of the OED and Merriam-Webster’s Unabridge Dictionary (MW), we performed the above analysis on randomly generated subsets of the lexicon in eight frequency deciles (ranging from 10°- 10° to 10°- 107). The samples contained 500 candidate words each for all but the top 3 deciles; the samples corresponding to the top 3 deciles (10° - 107, 107 10°, 10° - 107) contained 100 candidate words each. A native speaker with no knowledge of the experiment being performed determined which words from our random samples fell into the P, B, or R categories (to enable a fair comparison, we excluded the N category from our analysis as both OED an MW exclude them). The annotator then attempted to find a definition for the words in both the online edition of the Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary or in the online version of the Oxford English Dictionary's 2™ edition. Notably, the performance of the latter was boosted appreciably by its inclusion of Merriam-Webster’s Medical Dictionary. Results of this analysis are shown in Appendix. To estimate the fraction of dark matter in the English language, we applied the formula: sum over all deciles of Pword*Poepmw*Nigram, With: - Nigram the number of 1grams in the decile - Pwora the proportion of words (R,B or P) in this decile - Poepmw the proportion of words of that decile that are covered in OED or MW. We obtain 52% of dark matter, words not listed in either MW or the OED. With the procedure above, we estimate the number of words excluding proper nouns at 572,000; this results in 297,000 words unlisted in even the most comprehensive commercial and historical dictionaries. IlI.4D. Analysis New and Obsolete words in the American Heritage Dictionary We obtained a list of the 4804 vocabulary items that were added to the AHD4 in 2000 from the dictionary’s editorial staff. These 4804 words were not in AHD3 (1992) — although, on rare occasions a word could have featured in earlier
February 7, 2026 at 11:22 PM